ABSTRACT
The novel Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of COVID-19 outbreak, spread rapidly and infected more than 140 million people with more than three million victims worldwide. The SARS-CoV-2 causes destructive changes in the immunological and hematological system of the host. These alterations appear to play a critical role in disease pathology and the emerging of clinical manifestations. In this review, we aimed to discuss the effect of COVID-19 on the count, function and morphology of immune and blood cells and the role of these changes in the pathophysiology of the disease. Knowledge of these changes may help with better management and treatment of COVID-19 patients.
Subject(s)
Blood Platelets/virology , Erythrocytes/virology , Granulocytes/virology , Monocytes/virology , SARS-CoV-2 , COVID-19/blood , COVID-19/virology , Cell Count , Cell Shape , HumansABSTRACT
The systemic processes involved in the manifestation of life-threatening COVID-19 and in disease recovery are still incompletely understood, despite investigations focusing on the dysregulation of immune responses after SARS-CoV-2 infection. To define hallmarks of severe COVID-19 in acute disease (n = 58) and in disease recovery in convalescent patients (n = 28) from Hannover Medical School, we used flow cytometry and proteomics data with unsupervised clustering analyses. In our observational study, we combined analyses of immune cells and cytokine/chemokine networks with endothelial activation and injury. ICU patients displayed an altered immune signature with prolonged lymphopenia but the expansion of granulocytes and plasmablasts along with activated and terminally differentiated T and NK cells and high levels of SARS-CoV-2-specific antibodies. The core signature of seven plasma proteins revealed a highly inflammatory microenvironment in addition to endothelial injury in severe COVID-19. Changes within this signature were associated with either disease progression or recovery. In summary, our data suggest that besides a strong inflammatory response, severe COVID-19 is driven by endothelial activation and barrier disruption, whereby recovery depends on the regeneration of the endothelial integrity.
Subject(s)
Antibodies, Viral/blood , Blood Proteins/metabolism , COVID-19/diagnosis , Cytokine Release Syndrome/diagnosis , Endothelium, Vascular/virology , Lymphopenia/diagnosis , SARS-CoV-2/pathogenicity , Biomarkers/blood , C-Reactive Protein/metabolism , COVID-19/immunology , COVID-19/mortality , COVID-19/virology , Chemokine CXCL10/blood , Chemokine CXCL9/blood , Cluster Analysis , Convalescence , Cytokine Release Syndrome/immunology , Cytokine Release Syndrome/mortality , Cytokine Release Syndrome/virology , Disease Progression , Endothelium, Vascular/immunology , Granulocytes/immunology , Granulocytes/virology , Hematopoietic Cell Growth Factors/blood , Hepatocyte Growth Factor/blood , Humans , Intensive Care Units , Interleukin-12 Subunit p40/blood , Interleukin-6/blood , Interleukin-8/blood , Killer Cells, Natural/immunology , Killer Cells, Natural/virology , Lectins, C-Type/blood , Lymphopenia/immunology , Lymphopenia/mortality , Lymphopenia/virology , Plasma Cells/immunology , Plasma Cells/virology , Survival Analysis , T-Lymphocytes/immunology , T-Lymphocytes/virologyABSTRACT
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) caused by SARS-CoV-2 is largely the result of a dysregulated host response, followed by damage to alveolar cells and lung fibrosis. Exacerbated proinflammatory cytokines release (cytokine storm) and loss of T lymphocytes (leukopenia) characterize the most aggressive presentation. We propose that a multifaceted anti-inflammatory strategy based on pharmacological activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (NRF2) can be deployed against the virus. The strategy provides robust cytoprotection by restoring redox and protein homeostasis, promoting resolution of inflammation, and facilitating repair. NRF2 activators such as sulforaphane and bardoxolone methyl are already in clinical trials. The safety and efficacy information of these modulators in humans, together with their well-documented cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects in preclinical models, highlight the potential of this armamentarium for deployment to the battlefield against COVID-19.